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| PMID |
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| TITLE |
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| Genetic and environmental predictors of seasonality and seasonal affective disorder in individuals with depression. |
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| ABSTRACT |
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| BACKGROUND |
NlmCategory: BACKGROUND |
| The etiology and nosological status of seasonal affective disorder (SAD) as a specifier of depressive episodes versus a transdiagnostic disorder are the subject of debate. In this study, we investigated the underlying etiology of SAD and dimensional seasonality by examining their association with latitude and genetic risk for a range of traits, and investigated gene-environment interactions. |
| METHODS |
NlmCategory: METHODS |
| The etiology and nosological status of seasonal affective disorder (SAD) as a specifier of depressive episodes versus a transdiagnostic disorder are the subject of debate. In this study, we investigated the underlying etiology of SAD and dimensional seasonality by examining their association with latitude and genetic risk for a range of traits, and investigated gene-environment interactions. This study included 12,460 adults (76% female, aged 18-90) with a history of depression from the Australian Genetics of Depression Study. Regression models included predictors for latitude (distance from equator) and polygenic scores for eight traits; major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders, chronotype, sleep duration, body mass index, vitamin D levels, and educational attainment. Outcomes were SAD status and general seasonality score. |
| RESULTS |
NlmCategory: RESULTS |
| The etiology and nosological status of seasonal affective disorder (SAD) as a specifier of depressive episodes versus a transdiagnostic disorder are the subject of debate. In this study, we investigated the underlying etiology of SAD and dimensional seasonality by examining their association with latitude and genetic risk for a range of traits, and investigated gene-environment interactions. This study included 12,460 adults (76% female, aged 18-90) with a history of depression from the Australian Genetics of Depression Study. Regression models included predictors for latitude (distance from equator) and polygenic scores for eight traits; major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders, chronotype, sleep duration, body mass index, vitamin D levels, and educational attainment. Outcomes were SAD status and general seasonality score. SAD was positively associated with latitude (OR[95%CI] = 1.05[1.03-1.06], p < 0.001), and there was nominal evidence of additive and multiplicative interactions between chronotype genetic risk and latitude (OR = 0.99[0.99-0.99], p = 0.381; OR = 0.98[0.97-0.99], p = 0.489). General seasonality score was associated with latitude (IRR = 1.01[1.01-1.01], p 0.001) and genetic risk for major depressive disorder (IRR =1.02[1.01-1.03], p < 0.001), bipolar disorder (IRR = 1.02[1.01-1.03], p = 0.001), anxiety disorders (IRR = 1.03[1.01-1.04], p < 0.001), vitamin D levels (OR = 0.89[0.80-0.95], p = 0.048), and educational attainment (IRR = 0.97[0.96-0.99], p < 0.001). |
| CONCLUSIONS |
NlmCategory: CONCLUSIONS |
| The etiology and nosological status of seasonal affective disorder (SAD) as a specifier of depressive episodes versus a transdiagnostic disorder are the subject of debate. In this study, we investigated the underlying etiology of SAD and dimensional seasonality by examining their association with latitude and genetic risk for a range of traits, and investigated gene-environment interactions. This study included 12,460 adults (76% female, aged 18-90) with a history of depression from the Australian Genetics of Depression Study. Regression models included predictors for latitude (distance from equator) and polygenic scores for eight traits; major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders, chronotype, sleep duration, body mass index, vitamin D levels, and educational attainment. Outcomes were SAD status and general seasonality score. SAD was positively associated with latitude (OR[95%CI] = 1.05[1.03-1.06], p < 0.001), and there was nominal evidence of additive and multiplicative interactions between chronotype genetic risk and latitude (OR = 0.99[0.99-0.99], p = 0.381; OR = 0.98[0.97-0.99], p = 0.489). General seasonality score was associated with latitude (IRR = 1.01[1.01-1.01], p 0.001) and genetic risk for major depressive disorder (IRR =1.02[1.01-1.03], p < 0.001), bipolar disorder (IRR = 1.02[1.01-1.03], p = 0.001), anxiety disorders (IRR = 1.03[1.01-1.04], p < 0.001), vitamin D levels (OR = 0.89[0.80-0.95], p = 0.048), and educational attainment (IRR = 0.97[0.96-0.99], p < 0.001). These findings enhance understanding of SAD etiology, highlighting contributions of psychiatric genetic risk and geographic measures on seasonal behavior, and support examining seasonality as a continuous dimension. |
| Copyright © 2026. Published by Elsevier B.V. |
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| DATE PUBLISHED |
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| HISTORY |
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| PUBSTATUS |
PUBSTATUSDATE |
| received |
2026/07/03 |
| revised |
2026/08/31 |
| accepted |
2026/10/25 |
| medline |
2026/10/26 23:27 |
| pubmed |
2026/10/26 23:27 |
| entrez |
2026/10/26 20:32 |
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| AUTHORS |
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| NAME |
COLLECTIVENAME |
LASTNAME |
FORENAME |
INITIALS |
AFFILIATION |
AFFILIATIONINFO |
| Huider F |
|
Huider |
Floris |
F |
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Department of Biological Psychology, Faculty of Behavioral and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Electronic address: f.huider@vu.nl. |
| Crouse JJ |
|
Crouse |
Jacob J |
JJ |
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Youth Mental Health and Technology Team, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Australia. |
| Medland SE |
|
Medland |
Sarah E |
SE |
|
Brain and Mental Health Program, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, Australia. |
| Hickie IB |
|
Hickie |
Ian B |
IB |
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Youth Mental Health and Technology Team, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Australia. |
| Martin NG |
|
Martin |
Nicholas G |
NG |
|
Brain and Mental Health Program, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, Australia. |
| Thomas JT |
|
Thomas |
Jodi T |
JT |
|
Brain and Mental Health Program, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia. |
| Mitchell BL |
|
Mitchell |
Brittany L |
BL |
|
Brain and Mental Health Program, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia. |
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| INVESTIGATORS |
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| JOURNAL |
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| VOLUME: |
| ISSUE: |
| TITLE: Journal of affective disorders |
| ISOABBREVIATION: J Affect Disord |
| YEAR: 2026 |
| MONTH: Oct |
| DAY: 26 |
| MEDLINEDATE: |
| SEASON: |
| CITEDMEDIUM: Internet |
| ISSN: 1573-2517 |
| ISSNTYPE: Electronic |
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| MEDLINE JOURNAL |
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| MEDLINETA: J Affect Disord |
| COUNTRY: Netherlands |
| ISSNLINKING: 0165-0327 |
| NLMUNIQUEID: 7906073 |
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| PUBLICATION TYPE |
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| PUBLICATIONTYPE TEXT |
| Journal Article |
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| COMMENTS AND CORRECTIONS |
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| GENERAL NOTE |
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| KEYWORDS |
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| KEYWORD |
| Depression |
| Latitude |
| Polygenic scores |
| Seasonal affective disorder |
| Seasonality |
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| MESH HEADINGS |
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| SUPPLEMENTARY MESH |
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| CHEMICALS |
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